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GENERAL
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II)
13 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
Chapter 18
PROTECTION OF THE QUALITY AND SUPPLY OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES:
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO THE DEVELOPMENT,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF WATER RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
18.1. Freshwater resources are an essential component of the Earth's
hydrosphere and an indispensable part of all terrestrial ecosystems.
The freshwater environment is characterized by the hydrological cycle,
including floods and droughts, which in some regions have become more
extreme and dramatic in their consequences. Global climate change and
atmospheric pollution could also have an impact on freshwater resources
and their availability and, through sea-level rise, threaten low-lying
coastal areas and small island ecosystems.
18.2. Water is needed in all aspects of life. The general objective
is to make certain that adequate supplies of water of good quality are
maintained for the entire population of this planet, while preserving
the hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ecosystems,
adapting human activities within the capacity limits of nature and
combating vectors of water-related diseases. Innovative technologies,
including the improvement of indigenous technologies, are needed to
fully utilize limited water resources and to safeguard those resources
against pollution.
18.3. The widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and aggravated
pollution of freshwater resources in many world regions, along with the
progressive encroachment of incompatible activities, demand integrated
water resources planning and management. Such integration must cover
all types of interrelated freshwater bodies, including both surface
water and groundwater, and duly consider water quantity and quality
aspects. The multisectoral nature of water resources development in
the context of socio-economic development must be recognized, as well
as the multi-interest utilization of water resources for water supply
and sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development, hydropower
generation, inland fisheries, transportation, recreation, low and flat
lands management and other activities. Rational water utilization
schemes for the development of surface and underground water-supply
sources and other potential sources have to be supported by concurrent
water conservation and wastage minimization measures. Priority,
however, must be accorded to flood prevention and control measures, as
well as sedimentation control, where required.
18.4. Transboundary water resources and their use are of great
importance to riparian States. In this connection, cooperation among
those States may be desirable in conformity with existing agreements
and/or other relevant arrangements, taking into account the interests
of all riparian States concerned.
18.5. The following programme areas are proposed for the freshwater
sector:
(a) Integrated water resources development and management;
(b) Water resources assessment;
(c) Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic
ecosystems;
(d) Drinking-water supply and sanitation;
(e) Water and sustainable urban development;
(f) Water for sustainable food production and rural
development;
(g) Impacts of climate change on water resources.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Integrated water resources development and management
Basis for action
18.6. The extent to which water resources development contributes to
economic productivity and social well-being is not usually appreciated,
although all social and economic activities rely heavily on the supply
and quality of freshwater. As populations and economic activities
grow, many countries are rapidly reaching conditions of water scarcity
or facing limits to economic development. Water demands are increasing
rapidly, with 70-80 per cent required for irrigation, less than
20 per cent for industry and a mere 6 per cent for domestic
consumption. The holistic management of freshwater as a finite and
vulnerable resource, and the integration of sectoral water plans and
programmes within the framework of national economic and social policy,
are of paramount importance for action in the 1990s and beyond. The
fragmentation of responsibilities for water resources development among
sectoral agencies is proving, however, to be an even greater impediment
to promoting integrated water management than had been anticipated.
Effective implementation and coordination mechanisms are required.
Objectives
18.7. The overall objective is to satisfy the freshwater needs of all
countries for their sustainable development.
18.8. Integrated water resources management is based on the perception
of water as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource and
a social and economic good, whose quantity and quality determine the
nature of its utilization. To this end, water resources have to be
protected, taking into account the functioning of aquatic ecosystems
and the perenniality of the resource, in order to satisfy and reconcile
needs for water in human activities. In developing and using water
resources, priority has to be given to the satisfaction of basic needs
and the safeguarding of ecosystems. Beyond these requirements,
however, water users should be charged appropriately.
18.9. Integrated water resources management, including the integration
of land- and water-related aspects, should be carried out at the level
of the catchment basin or sub-basin. Four principal objectives should
be pursued, as follows:
(a) To promote a dynamic, interactive, iterative and
multisectoral approach to water resources management, including the
identification and protection of potential sources of freshwater
supply, that integrates technological, socio-economic, environmental
and human health considerations;
(b) To plan for the sustainable and rational utilization,
protection, conservation and management of water resources based on
community needs and priorities within the framework of national
economic development policy;
(c) To design, implement and evaluate projects and programmes
that are both economically efficient and socially appropriate within
clearly defined strategies, based on an approach of full public
participation, including that of women, youth, indigenous people and
local communities in water management policy-making and
decision-making;
(d) To identify and strengthen or develop, as required, in
particular in developing countries, the appropriate institutional,
legal and financial mechanisms to ensure that water policy and its
implementation are a catalyst for sustainable social progress and
economic growth.
18.10. In the case of transboundary water resources, there is a need
for riparian States to formulate water resources strategies, prepare
water resources action programmes and consider, where appropriate, the
harmonization of those strategies and action programmes.
18.11. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate,
could set the following targets:
(a) By the year 2000:
(i) To have designed and initiated costed and targeted national
action programmes, and to have put in place appropriate
institutional structures and legal instruments;
(ii) To have established efficient water-use programmes to
attain sustainable resource utilization patterns;
(b) By the year 2025:
(i) To have achieved subsectoral targets of all freshwater
programme areas.
It is understood that the fulfilment of the targets quantified in (i)
and (ii) above will depend upon new and additional financial resources
that will be made available to developing countries in accordance with
the relevant provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/228.
Activities
18.12. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate,
could implement the following activities to improve integrated water
resources management:
(a) Formulation of costed and targeted national action plans
and investment programmes;
(b) Integration of measures for the protection and conservation
of potential sources of freshwater supply, including the inventorying
of water resources, with land-use planning, forest resource
utilization, protection of mountain slopes and riverbanks and other
relevant development and conservation activities;
(c) Development of interactive databases, forecasting models,
economic planning models and methods for water management and planning,
including environmental impact assessment methods;
(d) Optimization of water resources allocation under physical
and socio-economic constraints;
(e) Implementation of allocation decisions through demand
management, pricing mechanisms and regulatory measures;
(f) Flood and drought management, including risk analysis and
environmental and social impact assessment;
(g) Promotion of schemes for rational water use through public
awareness-raising, educational programmes and levying of water tariffs
and other economic instruments;
(h) Mobilization of water resources, particularly in arid and
semi-arid areas;
(i) Promotion of international scientific research cooperation
on freshwater resources;
(j) Development of new and alternative sources of water-supply
such as sea-water desalination, artificial groundwater recharge, use of
marginal-quality water, waste-water reuse and water recycling;
(k) Integration of water (including surface and underground
water resources) quantity and quality management;
(l) Promotion of water conservation through improved water-use
efficiency and wastage minimization schemes for all users, including
the development of water-saving devices;
(m) Support to water-users groups to optimize local water
resources management;
(n) Development of public participatory techniques and their
implementation in decision-making, particularly the enhancement of the
role of women in water resources planning and management;
(o) Development and strengthening, as appropriate, of
cooperation, including mechanisms where appropriate, at all levels
concerned, namely:
(i) At the lowest appropriate level, delegation of water
resources management, generally, to such a level, in
accordance with national legislation, including
decentralization of government services to local
authorities, private enterprises and communities;
(ii) At the national level, integrated water resources planning
and management in the framework of the national planning
process and, where appropriate, establishment of
independent regulation and monitoring of freshwater, based
on national legislation and economic measures;
(iii) At the regional level, consideration, where appropriate, of
the harmonization of national strategies and action
programmes;
(iv) At the global level, improved delineation of
responsibilities, division of labour and coordination of
international organizations and programmes, including
facilitating discussions and sharing of experiences in
areas related to water resources management;
(p) Dissemination of information, including operational
guidelines, and promotion of education for water users, including the
consideration by the United Nations of a World Water Day.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.13. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $115 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.14. The development of interactive databases, forecasting methods
and economic planning models appropriate to the task of managing water
resources in an efficient and sustainable manner will require the
application of new techniques such as geographical information systems
and expert systems to gather, assimilate, analyse and display
multisectoral information and to optimize decision-making. In
addition, the development of new and alternative sources of
water-supply and low-cost water technologies will require innovative
applied research. This will involve the transfer, adaptation and
diffusion of new techniques and technology among developing countries,
as well as the development of endogenous capacity, for the purpose of
being able to deal with the added dimension of integrating engineering,
economic, environmental and social aspects of water resources
management and predicting the effects in terms of human impact.
18.15. Pursuant to the recognition of water as a social and economic
good, the various available options for charging water users (including
domestic, urban, industrial and agricultural water-user groups) have to
be further evaluated and field-tested. Further development is required
for economic instruments that take into account opportunity costs and
environmental externalities. Field studies on the willingness to pay
should be conducted in rural and urban situations.
18.16. Water resources development and management should be planned in
an integrated manner, taking into account long-term planning needs as
well as those with narrower horizons, that is to say, they should
incorporate environmental, economic and social considerations based on
the principle of sustainability; include the requirements of all users
as well as those relating to the prevention and mitigation of
water-related hazards; and constitute an integral part of the
socio-economic development planning process. A prerequisite for the
sustainable management of water as a scarce vulnerable resource is the
obligation to acknowledge in all planning and development its full
costs. Planning considerations should reflect benefits investment,
environmental protection and operation costs, as well as the
opportunity costs reflecting the most valuable alternative use of
water. Actual charging need not necessarily burden all beneficiaries
with the consequences of those considerations. Charging mechanisms
should, however, reflect as far as possible both the true cost of water
when used as an economic good and the ability of the communities to
pay.
18.17. The role of water as a social, economic and life-sustaining
good should be reflected in demand management mechanisms and
implemented through water conservation and reuse, resource assessment
and financial instruments.
18.18. The setting afresh of priorities for private and public
investment strategies should take into account (a) maximum utilization
of existing projects, through maintenance, rehabilitation and optimal
operation; (b) new or alternative clean technologies; and
(c) environmentally and socially benign hydropower.
(c) Human resources development
18.19. The delegation of water resources management to the lowest
appropriate level necessitates educating and training water management
staff at all levels and ensuring that women participate equally in the
education and training programmes. Particular emphasis has to be
placed on the introduction of public participatory techniques,
including enhancement of the role of women, youth, indigenous people
and local communities. Skills related to various water management
functions have to be developed by municipal government and water
authorities, as well as in the private sector, local/national
non-governmental organizations, cooperatives, corporations and other
water-user groups. Education of the public regarding the importance of
water and its proper management is also needed.
18.20. To implement these principles, communities need to have
adequate capacities. Those who establish the framework for water
development and management at any level, whether international,
national or local, need to ensure that the means exist to build those
capacities. The means will vary from case to case. They usually
include:
(a) Awareness-creation programmes, including mobilizing
commitment and support at all levels and initiating global and local
action to promote such programmes;
(b) Training of water managers at all levels so that they have
an appropriate understanding of all the elements necessary for their
decision-making;
(c) Strengthening of training capacities in developing
countries;
(d) Appropriate training of the necessary professionals,
including extension workers;
(e) Improvement of career structures;
(f) Sharing of appropriate knowledge and technology, both for
the collection of data and for the implementation of planned
development including non-polluting technologies and the knowledge
needed to extract the best performance from the existing investment
system.
(d) Capacity-building
18.21. Institutional capacity for implementing integrated water
management should be reviewed and developed when there is a clear
demand. Existing administrative structures will often be quite capable
of achieving local water resources management, but the need may arise
for new institutions based upon the perspective, for example, of river
catchment areas, district development councils and local community
committees. Although water is managed at various levels in the
socio-political system, demand-driven management requires the
development of water-related institutions at appropriate levels, taking
into account the need for integration with land-use management.
18.22. In creating the enabling environment for
lowest-appropriate-level management, the role of Government includes
mobilization of financial and human resources, legislation,
standard-setting and other regulatory functions, monitoring and
assessment of the use of water and land resources, and creating of
opportunities for public participation. International agencies and
donors have an important role to play in providing support to
developing countries in creating the required enabling environment for
integrated water resources management. This should include, as
appropriate, donor support to local levels in developing countries,
including community-based institutions, non-governmental organizations
and women's groups.
B. Water resources assessment
Basis for action
18.23. Water resources assessment, including the identification of
potential sources of freshwater supply, comprises the continuing
determination of sources, extent, dependability and quality of water
resources and of the human activities that affect those resources.
Such assessment constitutes the practical basis for their sustainable
management and a prerequisite for evaluation of the possibilities for
their development. There is, however, growing concern that at a time
when more precise and reliable information is needed about water
resources, hydrologic services and related bodies are less able than
before to provide this information, especially information on
groundwater and water quality. Major impediments are the lack of
financial resources for water resources assessment, the fragmented
nature of hydrologic services and the insufficient numbers of qualified
staff. At the same time, the advancing technology for data capture and
management is increasingly difficult to access for developing
countries. Establishment of national databases is, however, vital to
water resources assessment and to mitigation of the effects of floods,
droughts, desertification and pollution.
Objectives
18.24. Based upon the Mar del Plata Action Plan, this programme area
has been extended into the 1990s and beyond with the overall objective
of ensuring the assessment and forecasting of the quantity and quality
of water resources, in order to estimate the total quantity of water
resources available and their future supply potential, to determine
their current quality status, to predict possible conflicts between
supply and demand and to provide a scientific database for rational
water resources utilization.
18.25. Five specific objectives have been set accordingly, as follows:
(a) To make available to all countries water resources
assessment technology that is appropriate to their needs, irrespective
of their level of development, including methods for the impact
assessment of climate change on freshwaters;
(b) To have all countries, according to their financial means,
allocate to water resources assessment financial resources in line with
the economic and social needs for water resources data;
(c) To ensure that the assessment information is fully utilized
in the development of water management policies;
(d) To have all countries establish the institutional
arrangements needed to ensure the efficient collection, processing,
storage, retrieval and dissemination to users of information about the
quality and quantity of available water resources at the level of
catchments and groundwater aquifers in an integrated manner;
(e) To have sufficient numbers of appropriately qualified and
capable staff recruited and retained by water resources assessment
agencies and provided with the training and retraining they will need
to carry out their responsibilities successfully.
18.26. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
cooperation with the United Nations and other relevant organizations,
as appropriate, could set the following targets:
(a) By the year 2000, to have studied in detail the feasibility
of installing water resources assessment services;
(b) As a long-term target, to have fully operational services
available based upon high-density hydrometric networks.
Activities
18.27. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate,
could undertake the following activities:
(a) Institutional framework:
(i) Establish appropriate policy frameworks and national
priorities;
(ii) Establish and strengthen the institutional capabilities of
countries, including legislative and regulatory
arrangements, that are required to ensure the adequate
assessment of their water resources and the provision of
flood and drought forecasting services;
(iii) Establish and maintain effective cooperation at the
national level between the various agencies responsible for
the collection, storage and analysis of hydrologic data;
(iv) Cooperate in the assessment of transboundary water
resources, subject to the prior agreement of each riparian
State concerned;
(b) Data systems:
(i) Review existing data-collection networks and assess their
adequacy, including those that provide real-time data for
flood and drought forecasting;
(ii) Improve networks to meet accepted guidelines for the
provision of data on water quantity and quality for surface
and groundwater, as well as relevant land-use data;
(iii) Apply standards and other means to ensure data
compatibility;
(iv) Upgrade facilities and procedures used to store, process
and analyse hydrologic data and make such data and the
forecasts derived from them available to potential users;
(v) Establish databases on the availability of all types of
hydrologic data at the national level;
(vi) Implement "data rescue" operations, for example,
establishment of national archives of water resources;
(vii) Implement appropriate well-tried techniques for the
processing of hydrologic data;
(viii) Derive area-related estimates from point hydrologic data;
(ix) Assimilate remotely sensed data and the use, where
appropriate, of geographical information systems;
(c) Data dissemination:
(i) Identify the need for water resources data for various
planning purposes;
(ii) Analyse and present data and information on water resources
in the forms required for planning and management of
countries' socio-economic development and for use in
environmental protection strategies and in the design and
operation of specific water-related projects;
(iii) Provide forecasts and warnings of flood and drought to the
general public and civil defence;
(d) Research and development:
(i) Establish or strengthen research and development programmes
at the national, subregional, regional and international
levels in support of water resources assessment activities;
(ii) Monitor research and development activities to ensure that
they make full use of local expertise and other local
resources and that they are appropriate for the needs of
the country or countries concerned.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.28. The Conference secretariat has estimated the everage total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $355 million, including about $145 million from
the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.29. Important research needs include (a) development of global
hydrologic models in support of analysis of climate change impact and
of macroscale water resources assessment; (b) closing of the gap
between terrestrial hydrology and ecology at different scales,
including the critical water-related processes behind loss of
vegetation and land degradation and its restoration; and (c) study of
the key processes in water-quality genesis, closing the gap between
hydrologic flows and biogeochemical processes. The research models
should build upon hydrologic balance studies and also include the
consumptive use of water. This approach should also, when appropriate,
be applied at the catchment level.
18.30. Water resources assessment necessitates the strengthening of
existing systems for technology transfer, adaptation and diffusion, and
the development of new technology for use under field conditions, as
well as the development of endogenous capacity. Prior to inaugurating
the above activities, it is necessary to prepare catalogues of the
water resources information held by government services, the private
sector, educational institutes, consultants, local water-use
organizations and others.
(c) Human resource development
18.31. Water resources assessment requires the establishment and
maintenance of a body of well-trained and motivated staff sufficient in
number to undertake the above activities. Education and training
programmes designed to ensure an adequate supply of these trained
personnel should be established or strengthened at the local, national,
subregional or regional level. In addition, the provision of
attractive terms of employment and career paths for
professional and technical staff should be encouraged. Human resource
needs should be monitored periodically, including all levels of
employment. Plans have to be established to meet those needs through
education and training opportunities and international programmes of
courses and conferences.
18.32. Because well-trained people are particularly important to water
resources assessment and hydrologic forecasting, personnel matters
should receive special attention in this area. The aim should be to
attract and retain personnel to work on water resources assessment who
are sufficient in number and adequate in their level of education to
ensure the effective implementation of the activities that are planned.
Education may be called for at both the national and the international
level, with adequate terms of employment being a national
responsibility.
18.33. Recommended actions include:
(a) Identifying education and training needs geared to the
specific requirements of countries;
(b) Establishing and strengthening education and training
programmes on water-related topics, within an environmental and
developmental context, for all categories of staff involved in water
resources assessment activities, using advanced educational technology,
where appropriate, and involving both men and women;
(c) Developing sound recruitment, personnel and pay policies
for staff of national and local water agencies.
(d) Capacity-building
18.34. The conduct of water resources assessment on the basis of
operational national hydrometric networks requires an enabling
environment at all levels. The following national support action is
necessary for enhanced national capacities:
(a) Review of the legislative and regulatory basis of water
resources assessment;
(b) Facilitation of close collaboration among water sector
agencies, particularly between information producers and users;
(c) Implementation of water management policies based upon
realistic appraisals of water resources conditions and trends;
(d) Strengthening of the managerial capabilities of water-user
groups, including women, youth, indigenous people and local
communities, to improve water-use efficiency at the local level.
C. Protection of water resources, water
quality and aquatic ecosystems
Basis for action
18.35. Freshwater is a unitary resource. Long-term development of
global freshwater requires holistic management of resources and a
recognition of the interconnectedness of the elements related to
freshwater and freshwater quality. There are few regions of the world
that are still exempt from problems of loss of potential sources of
freshwater supply, degraded water quality and pollution of surface and
groundwater sources. Major problems affecting the water quality of
rivers and lakes arise, in variable order of importance according to
different situations, from inadequately treated domestic sewage,
inadequate controls on the discharges of industrial waste waters, loss
and destruction of catchment areas, ill-considered siting of industrial
plants, deforestation, uncontrolled shifting cultivation and poor
agricultural practices. This gives rise to the leaching of nutrients
and pesticides. Aquatic ecosystems are disturbed and living freshwater
resources are threatened. Under certain circumstances, aquatic
ecosystems are also affected by agricultural water resource development
projects such as dams, river diversions, water installations and
irrigation schemes. Erosion, sedimentation, deforestation and
desertification have led to increased land degradation, and the
creation of reservoirs has, in some cases, resulted in adverse effects
on ecosystems. Many of these problems have arisen from a development
model that is environmentally destructive and from a lack of public
awareness and education about surface and groundwater resource
protection. Ecological and human health effects are the measurable
consequences, although the means to monitor them are inadequate or
non-existent in many countries. There is a widespread lack of
perception of the linkages between the development, management, use and
treatment of water resources and aquatic ecosystems. A preventive
approach, where appropriate, is crucial to the avoiding of costly
subsequent measures to rehabilitate, treat and develop new water
supplies.
Objectives
18.36. The complex interconnectedness of freshwater systems demands
that freshwater management be holistic (taking a catchment management
approach) and based on a balanced consideration of the needs of people
and the environment. The Mar del Plata Action Plan has already
recognized the intrinsic linkage between water resource development
projects and their significant physical, chemical, biological, health
and socio-economic repercussions. The overall environmental health
objective was set as follows: "to evaluate the consequences which the
various users of water have on the environment, to support measures
aimed at controlling water-related diseases, and to protect
ecosystems". 1/
18.37. The extent and severity of contamination of unsaturated zones
and aquifers have long been underestimated owing to the relative
inaccessibility of aquifers and the lack of reliable information on
aquifer systems. The
protection of groundwater is therefore an essential element of water
resource management.
18.38. Three objectives will have to be pursued concurrently to
integrate water-quality elements into water resource management:
(a) Maintenance of ecosystem integrity, according to a
management principle of preserving aquatic ecosystems, including living
resources, and of effectively protecting them from any form of
degradation on a drainage basin basis;
(b) Public health protection, a task requiring not only the
provision of safe drinking-water but also the control of disease
vectors in the aquatic environment;
(c) Human resources development, a key to capacity-building and
a prerequisite for implementing water-quality management.
18.39. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the
United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
set the following targets:
(a) To identify the surface and groundwater resources that
could be developed for use on a sustainable basis and other major
developable water-dependent resources and, simultaneously, to initiate
programmes for the protection, conservation and rational use of these
resources on a sustainable basis;
(b) To identify all potential sources of water-supply and
prepared outlines for their protection, conservation and rational use;
(c) To initiate effective water pollution prevention and
control programmes, based on an appropriate mixture of pollution
reduction-at-source strategies, environmental impact assessments and
enforceable standards for major point-source discharges and high-risk
non-point sources, commensurate with their socio-economic development;
(d) To participate, as far as appropriate, in international
water-quality monitoring and management programmes such as the Global
Water Quality Monitoring Programme (GEMS/WATER), the UNEP
Environmentally Sound Management of Inland Waters (EMINWA), the FAO
regional inland fishery bodies, and the Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention);
(e) To reduce the prevalence of water-associated diseases,
starting with the eradication of dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease)
and onchocerciasis (river blindness) by the year 2000;
(f) To establish, according to capacities and needs, biological,
health, physical and chemical quality criteria for all water bodies
(surface and groundwater), with a view to an ongoing improvement of
water quality;
(g) To adopt an integrated approach to environmentally
sustainable management of water resources, including the protection of
aquatic ecosystems and freshwater living resources;
(h) To put in place strategies for the environmentally sound
management of freshwaters and related coastal ecosystems, including
consideration of fisheries, aquaculture, animal grazing, agricultural
activities and biodiversity.
Activities
18.40. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
implement the following activities:
(a) Water resources protection and conservation:
(i) Establishment and strengthening of technical and
institutional capacities to identify and protect potential
sources of water-supply within all sectors of society;
(ii) Identification of potential sources of water-supply and
preparation of national profiles;
(iii) Preparation of national plans for water resources protection
and conservation;
(iv) Rehabilitation of important, but degraded, catchment areas,
particularly on small islands;
(v) Strengthening of administrative and legislative measures to
prevent encroachment on existing and potentially usable
catchment areas;
(b) Water pollution prevention and control:
(i) Application of the "polluter pays" principle, where
appropriate, to all kinds of sources, including on-site and
off-site sanitation;
(ii) Promotion of the construction of treatment facilities for
domestic sewage and industrial effluents and the development
of appropriate technologies, taking into account sound
traditional and indigenous practices;
(iii) Establishment of standards for the discharge of effluents and
for the receiving waters;
(iv) Introduction of the precautionary approach in water-quality
management, where appropriate, with a focus on pollution
minimization and prevention through use of new technologies,
product and process change, pollution reduction at source and
effluent reuse, recycling and recovery, treatment and
environmentally safe disposal;
(v) Mandatory environmental impact assessment of all major water
resource development projects potentially impairing water
quality and aquatic ecosystems, combined with the delineation
of appropriate remedial measures and a strengthened control
of new industrial installations, solid waste landfills and
infrastructure development projects;
(vi) Use of risk assessment and risk management in reaching
decisions in this area and ensuring compliance with those
decisions;
(vii) Identification and application of best environmental
practices at reasonable cost to avoid diffuse pollution,
namely, through a limited, rational and planned use of
nitrogenous fertilizers and other agrochemicals (pesticides,
herbicides) in agricultural practices;
(viii) Encouragement and promotion of the use of adequately treated
and purified waste waters in agriculture, aquaculture,
industry and other sectors;
(c) Development and application of clean technology:
(i) Control of industrial waste discharges, including low-waste
production technologies and water recirculation, in an
integrated manner and through application of precautionary
measures derived from a broad-based life-cycle analysis;
(ii) Treatment of municipal waste water for safe reuse in
agriculture and aquaculture;
(iii) Development of biotechnology, inter alia, for waste
treatment, production of biofertilizers and other activities;
(iv) Development of appropriate methods for water pollution
control, taking into account sound traditional and indigenous
practices;
(d) Groundwater protection:
(i) Development of agricultural practices that do not degrade
groundwaters;
(ii) Application of the necessary measures to mitigate saline
intrusion into aquifers of small islands and coastal plains
as a consequence of sealevel rise or overexploitation of
coastal aquifers;
(iii) Prevention of aquifer pollution through the regulation of
toxic substances that permeate the ground and the
establishment of protection zones in groundwater recharge and
abstraction areas;
(iv) Design and management of landfills based upon sound
hydrogeologic information and impact assessment, using the
best practicable and best available technology;
(v) Promotion of measures to improve the safety and integrity of
wells and well-head areas to reduce intrusion of biological
pathogens and hazardous chemicals into aquifers at well
sites;
(vi) Water-quality monitoring, as needed, of surface and
groundwaters potentially affected by sites storing toxic and
hazardous materials;
(e) Protection of aquatic ecosystems:
(i) Rehabilitation of polluted and degraded water bodies to
restore aquatic habitats and ecosystems;
(ii) Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural lands and for
other users, taking into account equivalent action for the
protection and use of groundwater resources important for
agricultural productivity and for the biodiversity of the
tropics;
(iii) Conservation and protection of wetlands (owing to their
ecological and habitat importance for many species), taking
into account social and economic factors;
(iv) Control of noxious aquatic species that may destroy some
other water species;
(f) Protection of freshwater living resources:
(i) Control and monitoring of water quality to allow for the
sustainable development of inland fisheries;
(ii) Protection of ecosystems from pollution and degradation for
the development of freshwater aquaculture projects;
(g) Monitoring and surveillance of water resources and waters
receiving wastes:
(i) Establishment of networks for the monitoring and continuous
surveillance of waters receiving wastes and of point and
diffuse sources of pollution;
(ii) Promotion and extension of the application of environmental
impact assessments of geographical information systems;
(iii) Surveillance of pollution sources to improve compliance with
standards and regulations and to regulate the issue of
discharge permits;
(iv) Monitoring of the utilization of chemicals in agriculture
that may have an adverse environmental effect;
(v) Rational land use to prevent land degradation, erosion and
siltation of lakes and other water bodies;
(h) Development of national and international legal instruments
that may be required to protect the quality of water resources, as
appropriate, particularly for:
(i) Monitoring and control of pollution and its effects in
national and transboundary waters;
(ii) Control of long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants;
(iii) Control of accidental and/or deliberate spills in national
and/or transboundary water bodies;
(iv) Environmental impact assessment.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $1 billion, including about $340 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.42. States should undertake cooperative research projects to
develop solutions to technical problems that are appropriate for the
conditions in each watershed or country. States should consider
strengthening and developing national research centres linked through
networks and supported by regional water research institutes. The
North-South twinning of research centres and field studies by
international water research institutions should be actively promoted.
It is important that a minimum percentage of funds for water resource
development projects is allocated to research and development,
particularly in externally funded projects.
18.43. Monitoring and assessment of complex aquatic systems often
require multidisciplinary studies involving several institutions and
scientists in a joint programme. International water-quality
programmes, such as GEMS/WATER, should be oriented towards the
water-quality of developing countries. User-friendly software and
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Global Resource Information
Database (GRID) methods should be developed for the handling, analysis
and interpretation of monitoring data and for the preparation of
management strategies.
(c) Human resource development
18.44. Innovative approaches should be adopted for professional and
managerial staff training in order to cope with changing needs and
challenges. Flexibility and adaptability regarding emerging water
pollution issues should be developed. Training activities should be
undertaken periodically at all levels within the organizations
responsible for water-quality management and innovative teaching
techniques adopted for specific aspects of water-quality monitoring and
control, including development of training skills, in-service training,
problem-solving workshops and refresher training courses.
18.45. Suitable approaches include the strengthening and improvement
of the human resource capabilities of local Governments in managing
water protection, treatment and use, particularly in urban areas, and
the establishment of national and regional technical and engineering
courses on the subjects of water-quality protection and control at
existing schools and education/training courses on water resources
protection and conservation for laboratory and field technicians, women
and other water-user groups.
(d) Capacity-building
18.46. The effective protection of water resources and ecosystems from
pollution requires considerable upgrading of most countries' present
capacities. Water-quality management programmes require a certain
minimum infrastructure and staff to identify and implement technical
solutions and to enforce regulatory action. One of the key problems
today and for the future is the sustained operation and maintenance of
these facilities. In order not to allow resources gained from previous
investments to deteriorate further, immediate action is required in a
number of areas.
D. Drinking-water supply and sanitation
Basis for action
18.47. Safe water-supplies and environmental sanitation are vital for
protecting the environment, improving health and alleviating poverty.
Safe water is also crucial to many traditional and cultural activities.
An estimated 80 per cent of all diseases and over one third of deaths
in developing countries are caused by the consumption of contaminated
water, and on average as much as one tenth of each person's productive
time is sacrificed
to water-related diseases. Concerted efforts during the 1980s brought
water and sanitation services to hundreds of millions of the world's
poorest people. The most outstanding of these efforts was the
launching in 1981 of the International Drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation Decade, which resulted from the Mar del Plata Action Plan
adopted by the United Nations Water Conference in 1977. The commonly
agreed premise was that "all peoples, whatever their stage of
development and their social and economic conditions, have the right to
have access to drinking water in quantities and of a quality equal to
their basic needs". 2/ The target of the Decade was to provide safe
drinking-water and sanitation to underserved urban and rural areas by
1990, but even the unprecedented progress achieved during the Decade
was not enough. One in three people in the developing world still
lacks these two most basic requirements for health and dignity. It is
also recognized that human excreta and sewage are important causes of
the deterioration of water-quality in developing countries, and the
introduction of available technologies, including appropriate
technologies, and the construction of sewage treatment facilities could
bring significant improvement.
Objectives
18.48. The New Delhi Statement (adopted at the Global Consultation on
Safe Water and Sanitation for the 1990s, which was held in New Delhi
from 10 to 14 September 1990) formalized the need to provide, on a
sustainable basis, access to safe water in sufficient quantities and
proper sanitation for all, emphasizing the "some for all rather than
more for some" approach. Four guiding principles provide for the
programme objectives:
(a) Protection of the environment and safeguarding of health
through the integrated management of water resources and liquid and
solid wastes;
(b) Institutional reforms promoting an integrated approach and
including changes in procedures, attitudes and behaviour, and the full
participation of women at all levels in sector institutions;
(c) Community management of services, backed by measures to
strengthen local institutions in implementing and sustaining water and
sanitation programmes;
(d) Sound financial practices, achieved through better management
of existing assets, and widespread use of appropriate technologies.
18.49. Past experience has shown that specific targets should be set
by each individual country. At the World Summit for Children, in
September 1990, heads of State or Government called for both universal
access to water-supply and sanitation and the eradication of guinea
worm disease by 1995. Even for the more realistic target of achieving
full coverage in water-supply by 2025, it is estimated that annual
investments must reach double the current levels. One realistic
strategy to meet present and future needs, therefore, is to develop
lower-cost but adequate services that can be implemented and sustained
at the community level.
Activities
18.50. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate,
could implement the following activities:
(a) Environment and health:
(i) Establishment of protected areas for sources of
drinking-water supply;
(ii) Sanitary disposal of excreta and sewage, using appropriate
systems to treat waste waters in urban and rural areas;
(iii) Expansion of urban and rural water-supply and development and
expansion of rainwater catchment systems, particularly on
small islands, in addition to the reticulated water-supply
system;
(iv) Building and expansion, where appropriate, of sewage
treatment facilities and drainage systems;
(v) Treatment and safe reuse of domestic and industrial waste
waters in urban and rural areas;
(vi) Control of water-associated diseases;
(b) People and institutions:
(i) Strengthening of the functioning of Governments in water
resources management and, at the same time, giving of full
recognition to the role of local authorities;
(ii) Encouragement of water development and management based on a
participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy
makers at all levels;
(iii) Application of the principle that decisions are to be taken
at the lowest appropriate level, with public consultation and
involvement of users in the planning and implementation of
water projects;
(iv) Human resource development at all levels, including special
programmes for women;
(v) Broad-based education programmes, with particular emphasis on
hygiene, local management and risk reduction;
(vi) International support mechanisms for programme funding,
implementation and follow-up;
(c) National and community management:
(i) Support and assistance to communities in managing their own
systems on a sustainable basis;
(ii) Encouragement of the local population, especially women,
youth, indigenous people and local communities, in water
management;
(iii) Linkages between national water plans and community
management of local waters;
(iv) Integration of community management of water within the
context of overall planning;
(v) Promotion of primary health and environmental care at the
local level, including training for local communities in
appropriate water management techniques and primary health
care;
(vi) Assistance to service agencies in becoming more
cost-effective and responsive to consumer needs;
(vii) Providing of more attention to underserved rural and
low-income periurban areas;
(viii) Rehabilitation of defective systems, reduction of wastage and
safe reuse of water and waste water;
(ix) Programmes for rational water use and ensured operation and
maintenance;
(x) Research and development of appropriate technical solutions;
(xi) Substantially increase urban treatment capacity commensurate
with increasing loads;
(d) Awareness creation and public information/participation:
(i) Strengthening of sector monitoring and information management
at subnational and national levels;
(ii) Annual processing, analysis and publication of monitoring
results at national and local levels as a sector management
and advocacy/awareness creation tool;
(iii) Use of limited sector indicators at regional and global
levels to promote the sector and raise funds;
(iv) Improvement of sector coordination, planning and
implementation, with the assistance of improved monitoring
and information management, to increase the sector's
absorptive capacity, particularly in community-based
self-help projects.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.51. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $20 billion, including about $7.4 billion from
the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.52. To ensure the feasibility, acceptability and sustainability of
planned water-supply services, adopted technologies should be
responsive to the needs and constraints imposed by the conditions of
the community concerned. Thus, design criteria will involve technical,
health, social, economic, provincial, institutional and environmental
factors that determine the characteristics, magnitude and cost of the
planned system. Relevant international support programmes should
address the developing countries concerning, inter alia:
(a) Pursuit of low-cost scientific and technological means, as
far as practicable;
(b) Utilization of traditional and indigenous practices, as far
as practicable, to maximize and sustain local involvement;
(c) Assistance to country-level technical/scientific institutes
to facilitate curricula development to support fields critical to the
water and sanitation sector.
(c) Human resource development
18.53. To effectively plan and manage water-supply and sanitation at
the national, provincial, district and community level, and to utilize
funds most effectively, trained professional and technical staff must
be developed within each country in sufficient numbers. To do this,
countries must establish manpower development plans, taking into
consideration present requirements and planned developments.
Subsequently, the development and performance of country-level training
institutions should be enhanced so that they can play a pivotal role in
capacity-building. It is also important that countries provide
adequate training for women in the sustainable maintenance of
equipment, water resources management and environmental sanitation.
(d) Capacity-building
18.54. The implementation of water-supply and sanitation programmes is
a national responsibility. To varying degrees, responsibility for the
implementation of projects and the operating of systems should be
delegated to all administrative levels down to the community and
individual served. This also means that national authorities, together
with the agencies and bodies of the United Nations system and other
external support agencies providing support to national programmes,
should develop mechanisms and procedures to collaborate at all levels.
This is particularly important if full advantage is to be taken of
community-based approaches and self-reliance as tools for
sustainability. This will entail a high degree of community
participation, involving women, in the conception, planning,
decision-making, implementation and evaluation connected with projects
for domestic water-supply and sanitation.
18.55. Overall national capacity-building at all administrative
levels, involving institutional development, coordination, human
resources, community participation, health and hygiene education and
literacy, has to be developed according to its fundamental connection
both with any efforts to improve health and socio-economic development
through water-supply and sanitation and with their impact on the human
environment. Capacity-building should therefore be one of the
underlying keys in implementation strategies. Institutional
capacity-building should be considered to have an importance equal to
that of the sector supplies and equipment component so that funds can
be directed to both. This can be undertaken at the planning or
programme/project formulation stage, accompanied by a clear definition
of objectives and targets. In this regard, technical cooperation among
developing countries owing to their available wealth of information and
experience and the need to avoid "reinventing the wheel", is crucial.
Such a course has proved cost-effective in many country projects
already.
E. Water and sustainable urban development
Basis for action
18.56. Early in the next century, more than half of the world's
population will be living in urban areas. By the year 2025, that
proportion will have risen to 60 per cent, comprising some 5 billion
people. Rapid urban population growth and industrialization are
putting severe strains on the water resources and environmental
protection capabilities of many cities. Special attention needs to be
given to the growing effects of urbanization on water demands and usage
and to the critical role played by local and municipal authorities in
managing the supply, use and overall treatment of water, particularly
in developing countries for which special support is needed. Scarcity
of freshwater resources and the escalating costs of developing new
resources have a considerable impact on national industrial,
agricultural and human settlement development and economic growth.
Better management of urban water resources, including the elimination
of unsustainable consumption patterns, can make a substantial
contribution to the alleviation of poverty and improvement of the
health and quality of life of the urban and rural poor. A high
proportion of large urban agglomerations are located around estuaries
and in coastal zones. Such an arrangement leads to pollution from
municipal and industrial discharges combined with overexploitation of
available water resources and threatens the marine environment and the
supply of freshwater resources.
Objectives
18.57. The development objective of this programme is to support local
and central Governments' efforts and capacities to sustain national
development and productivity through environmentally sound management
of water resources for urban use. Supporting this objective is the
identification and implementation of strategies and actions to ensure
the continued supply of affordable water for present and future needs
and to reverse current trends of resource degradation and depletion.
18.58. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate,
could set the following targets:
(a) By the year 2000, to have ensured that all urban residents
have access to at least 40 litres per capita per day of safe water and
that 75 per cent of the urban population are provided with on-site or
community facilities for sanitation;
(b) By the year 2000, to have established and applied
quantitative and qualitative discharge standards for municipal and
industrial effluents;
(c) By the year 2000, to have ensured that 75 per cent of solid
waste generated in urban areas are collected and recycled or disposed
of in an environmentally safe way.
Activities
18.59. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate,
could implement the following activities:
(a) Protection of water resources from depletion, pollution and
degradation:
(i) Introduction of sanitary waste disposal facilities based on
environmentally sound low-cost and upgradable technologies;
(ii) Implementation of urban storm-water run-off and drainage
programmes;
(iii) Promotion of recycling and reuse of waste water and solid
wastes;
(iv) Control of industrial pollution sources to protect water
resources;
(v) Protection of watersheds with respect to depletion and
degradation of their forest cover and from harmful upstream
activities;
(vi) Promotion of research into the contribution of forests to
sustainable water resources development;
(vii) Encouragement of the best management practices for the use
of agrochemicals with a view to minimizing their impact on
water resources;
(b) Efficient and equitable allocation of water resources:
(i) Reconciliation of city development planning with the
availability and sustainability of water resources;
(ii) Satisfaction of the basic water needs of the urban
population;
(iii) Introduction of water tariffs, taking into account the
circumstances in each country and where affordable, that
reflect the marginal and opportunity cost of water,
especially for productive activities;
(c) Institutional/legal/management reforms:
(i) Adoption of a city-wide approach to the management of water
resources;
(ii) Promotion at the national and local level of the
elaboration of land-use plans that give due consideration
to water resources development;
(iii) Utilization of the skills and potential of non-governmental
organizations, the private sector and local people, taking
into account the public's and strategic interests in water
resources;
(d) Promotion of public participation:
(i) Initiation of public-awareness campaigns to encourage the
public's move towards rational water utilization;
(ii) Sensitization of the public to the issue of protecting
water quality within the urban environment;
(iii) Promotion of public participation in the collection,
recycling and elimination of wastes;
(e) Support to local capacity-building:
(i) Development of legislation and policies to promote
investments in urban water and waste management, reflecting
the major contribution of cities to national economic
development;
(ii) Provision of seed money and technical support to the local
handling of materials supply and services;
(iii) Encouragement, to the extent possible, of autonomy and
financial viability of city water, solid waste and sewerage
utilities;
(iv) Creation and maintenance of a cadre of professionals and
semi-professionals, for water, waste-water and solid waste
management;
(f) Provision of enhanced access to sanitary services:
(i) Implementation of water, sanitation and waste management
programmes focused on the urban poor;
(ii) Making available of low-cost water-supply and sanitation
technology choices;
(iii) Basing of choice of technology and service levels on user
preferences and willingness to pay;
(iv) Mobilization and facilitation of the active involvement of
women in water management teams;
(v) Encouragement and equipment of local water associations and
water committees to manage community water-supply systems
and communal latrines, with technical back-up available
when required;
(vi) Consideration of the merits and practicality of
rehabilitating existing malfunctioning systems and of
correcting operation and maintenance inadequacies.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.60. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $20 billion, including about $4.5 billion from
the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.61. The 1980s saw considerable progress in the development and
application of low-cost water-supply and sanitation technologies. The
programme envisages continuation of this work, with particular emphasis
on development of appropriate sanitation and waste disposal
technologies for low-income high-density urban settlements. There
should also be international information exchange, to ensure a
widespread recognition among sector professionals of the availability
and benefits of appropriate low-cost technologies. The
public-awareness campaigns will also include components to overcome
user resistance to second-class services by emphasizing the benefits of
reliability and sustainability.
(c) Human resource development
18.62. Implicit in virtually all elements of this programme is the
need for progressive enhancement of the training and career development
of personnel at all levels in sector institutions. Specific programme
activities will involve the training and retention of staff with skills
in community involvement, low-cost technology, financial management,
and integrated planning of urban water resources management. Special
provision should be made for mobilizing and facilitating the active
participation of women, youth, indigenous people and local communities
in water management teams and for supporting the development of water
associations and water committees, with appropriate training of such
personnel as treasurers, secretaries and caretakers. Special education
and training programmes for women should be launched with regard to the
protection of water resources and water-quality within urban areas.
(d) Capacity-building
18.63. In combination with human resource development, strengthening
of institutional, legislative and management structures are key
elements of the programme. A prerequisite for progress in enhancing
access to water and sanitation services is the establishment of an
institutional framework that ensures that the real needs and potential
contributions of currently unserved populations are reflected in urban
development planning. The multisectoral approach, which is a vital
part of urban water resources management, requires institutional
linkages at the national and city levels, and the programme includes
proposals for establishing intersectoral planning groups. Proposals
for greater pollution control and prevention depend for their success
on the right combination of economic and regulatory mechanisms, backed
by adequate monitoring and surveillance and supported by enhanced
capacity to address environmental issues on the part of local
Governments.
18.64. Establishment of appropriate design standards, water-quality
objectives and discharge consents is therefore among the proposed
activities. The programme also includes support for strengthening the
capability of water and sewerage agencies and for developing their
autonomy and financial viability. Operation and maintenance of
existing water and sanitation facilities have been recognized as
entailing a serious shortcoming in many countries. Technical and
financial support are needed to help countries correct present
inadequacies and build up the capacity to operate and maintain
rehabilitated and new systems.
F. Water for sustainable food production and rural development
Basis for action
18.65. Sustainability of food production increasingly depends on sound
and efficient water use and conservation practices consisting primarily
of irrigation development and management, including water management
with respect to rain-fed areas, livestock water-supply, inland
fisheries and agro-forestry. Achieving food security is a high
priority in many countries, and agriculture must not only provide food
for rising populations, but also save water for other uses. The
challenge is to develop and apply water-saving technology and
management methods and, through capacity-building, enable communities
to introduce institutions and incentives for the rural population to
adopt new approaches, for both rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. The
rural population must also have better access to a potable water-supply
and to sanitation services. It is an immense task but not an
impossible one, provided appropriate policies and programmes are
adopted at all levels - local, national and international. While
significant expansion of the area under rain-fed agriculture has been
achieved during the past decade, the productivity response and
sustainability of irrigation systems have been constrained by problems
of waterlogging and salinization. Financial and market constraints are
also a common problem. Soil erosion, mismanagement and
overexploitation of natural resources and acute competition for water
have all influenced the extent of poverty, hunger and famine in the
developing countries. Soil erosion caused by overgrazing of livestock
is also often responsible for the siltation of lakes. Most often, the
development of irrigation schemes is supported neither by environmental
impact assessments identifying hydrologic consequences within
watersheds of interbasin transfers, nor by the assessment of social
impacts on peoples in river valleys.
18.66. The non-availability of water-supplies of suitable quality is
a significant limiting factor to livestock production in many
countries, and improper disposal of animal wastes can in certain
circumstances result in pollution of water-supplies for both humans and
animals. The drinking-water requirements of livestock vary according
to species and the environment in which they are kept. It is estimated
that the current global livestock drinking-water requirement is about
60 billion litres per day and based on livestock population growth
estimates, this daily requirement is predicted to increase by 0.4
billion litres per annum in the foreseeable future.
18.67. Freshwater fisheries in lakes and streams are an important
source of food and protein. Fisheries of inland waters should be so
managed as to maximize the yield of aquatic food organisms in an
environmentally sound manner. This requires the conservation of
water-quality and quantity, as well as of the functional morphology of
the aquatic environment. On the other hand, fishing and aquaculture
may themselves damage the aquatic ecosystem; hence their development
should conform to guidelines for impact limitation. Present levels of
production from inland fisheries, from both fresh and brackish water,
are about 7 million tons per year and could increase to 16 million tons
per year by the year 2000; however, any increase in environmental
stress could jeopardize this rise.
Objectives
18.68. The key strategic principles for holistic and integrated
environmentally sound management of water resources in the rural
context may be set forth as follows:
(a) Water should be regarded as a finite resource having an
economic value with significant social and economic implications
reflecting the importance of meeting basic needs;
(b) Local communities must participate in all phases of water
management, ensuring the full involvement of women in view of their
crucial role in the practical day-to-day supply, management and use of
water;
(c) Water resource management must be developed within a
comprehensive set of policies for (i) human health; (ii) food
production, preservation and distribution; (iii) disaster mitigation
plans; (iv) environmental protection and conservation of the natural
resource base;
(d) It is necessary to recognize and actively support the role
of rural populations, with particular emphasis on women.
18.69. An International Action Programme on Water and Sustainable
Agricultural Development (IAP-WASAD) has been initiated by FAO in
cooperation with other international organizations. The main objective
of the Action Programme is to assist developing countries in planning,
developing and managing water resources on an integrated basis to meet
present and future needs for agricultural production, taking into
account environmental considerations.
18.70. The Action Programme has developed a framework for sustainable
water use in the agricultural sector and identified priority areas for
action at national, regional and global levels. Quantitative targets
for new irrigation development, improvement of existing irrigation
schemes and reclamation of waterlogged and salinized lands through
drainage for 130 developing countries are estimated on the basis of
food requirements, agro-climatic zones and availability of water and
land.
18.71. FAO global projections for irrigation, drainage and small-scale
water programmes by the year 2000 for 130 developing countries are as
follows: (a) 15.2 million hectares of new irrigation development;
(b) 12 million hectares of improvement/modernization of existing
schemes; (c) 7 million hectares installed with drainage and water
control facilities; and (d) 10 million hectares of small-scale water
programmes and conservation.
18.72. The development of new irrigation areas at the above-mentioned
level may give rise to environmental concerns in so far as it implies
the destruction of wetlands, water pollution, increased sedimentation
and a reduction in biodiversity. Therefore, new irrigation schemes
should be accompanied by an environmental impact assessment, depending
upon the scale of the scheme, in case significant negative
environmental impacts are expected. When considering proposals for new
irrigation schemes, consideration should also be given to a more
rational exploitation, and an increase in the efficiency or
productivity, of any existing schemes capable of serving the same
localities. Technologies for new irrigation schemes should be
thoroughly evaluated, including their potential conflicts with other
land uses. The active involvement of water-users groups is a
supporting objective.
18.73. It should be ensured that rural communities of all countries,
according to their capacities and available resources and taking
advantage of international cooperation as appropriate, will have access
to safe water in sufficient quantities and adequate sanitation to meet
their health needs and maintain the essential qualities of their local
environments.
18.74. The objectives with regard to water management for inland
fisheries and aquaculture include conservation of water-quality and
water-quantity requirements for optimum production and prevention of
water pollution by aquacultural activities. The Action Programme seeks
to assist member countries in managing the fisheries of inland waters
through the promotion of sustainable management of capture fisheries as
well as the development of environmentally sound approaches to
intensification of aquaculture.
18.75. The objectives with regard to water management for livestock
supply are twofold: provision of adequate amounts of drinking-water
and safeguarding of drinking-water quality in accordance with the
specific needs of different animal species. This entails maximum
salinity tolerance levels and the absence of pathogenic organisms. No
global targets can be set owing to large regional and intra-country
variations.
Activities
18.76. All States, according to their capacity and available
resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including
the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate,
could implement the following activities:
(a) Water-supply and sanitation for the unserved rural poor:
(i) Establish national policies and budget priorities with
regard to increasing service coverage;
(ii) Promote appropriate technologies;
(iii) Introduce suitable cost-recovery mechanisms, taking into
account efficiency and equity through demand management
mechanisms;
(iv) Promote community ownership and rights to water-supply and
sanitation facilities;
(v) Establish monitoring and evaluation systems;
(vi) Strengthen the rural water-supply and sanitation sector
with emphasis on institutional development, efficient
management and an appropriate framework for financing of
services;
(vii) Increase hygiene education and eliminate disease
transmission foci;
(viii) Adopt appropriate technologies for water treatment;
(ix) Adopt wide-scale environmental management measures to
control disease vectors;
(b) Water-use efficiency:
(i) Increase of efficiency and productivity in agricultural
water use for better utilization of limited water
resources;
(ii) Strengthen water and soil management research under
irrigation and rain-fed conditions;
(iii) Monitor and evaluate irrigation project performance to
ensure, inter alia, the optimal utilization and proper
maintenance of the project;
(iv) Support water-users groups with a view to improving
management performance at the local level;
(v) Support the appropriate use of relatively brackish water
for irrigation;
(c) Waterlogging, salinity control and drainage:
(i) Introduce surface drainage in rain-fed agriculture to
prevent temporary waterlogging and flooding of lowlands;
(ii) Introduce artificial drainage in irrigated and rain-fed
agriculture;
(iii) Encourage conjunctive use of surface and groundwaters,
including monitoring and water-balance studies;
(iv) Practise drainage in irrigated areas of arid and semi-arid
regions;
(d) Water-quality management:
(i) Establish and operate cost-effective water-quality
monitoring systems for agricultural water uses;
(ii) Prevent adverse effects of agricultural activities on
water-quality for other social and economic activities and
on wetlands, inter alia, through optimal use of on-farm
input and the minimization of the use of external input in
agricultural activities;
(iii) Establish biological, physical and chemical water-quality
criteria for agricultural water-users and for marine and
riverine ecosystems;
(iv) Minimize soil run-off and sedimentation;
(v) Dispose properly of sewage from human settlements and of
manure produced by intensive livestock breeding;
(vi) Minimize adverse effects from agricultural chemicals by use
of integrated pest management;
(vii) Educate communities about the pollution-related impacts of
the use of fertilizers and chemicals on water-quality, food
safety and human health;
(e) Water resources development programmes:
(i) Develop small-scale irrigation and water-supply for humans
and livestock and for water and soil conservation;
(ii) Formulate large-scale and long-term irrigation development
programmes, taking into account their effects on the local
level, the economy and the environment;
(iii) Promote local initiatives for the integrated development
and management of water resources;
(iv) Provide adequate technical advice and support and
enhancement of institutional collaboration at the local
community level;
(v) Promote a farming approach for land and water management
that takes account of the level of education, the capacity
to mobilize local communities and the ecosystem
requirements of arid and semi-arid regions;
(vi) Plan and develop multi-purpose hydroelectric power schemes,
making sure that environmental concerns are duly taken into
account;
(f) Scarce water resources management:
(i) Develop long-term strategies and practical implementation
programmes for agricultural water use under scarcity
conditions with competing demands for water;
(ii) Recognize water as a social, economic and strategic good in
irrigation planning and management;
(iii) Formulate specialized programmes focused on drought
preparedness, with emphasis on food scarcity and
environmental safeguards;
(iv) Promote and enhance waste-water reuse in agriculture;
(g) Water-supply for livestock:
(i) Improve quality of water available to livestock, taking
into account their tolerance limits;
(ii) Increase the quantity of water sources available to
livestock, in particular those in extensive grazing
systems, in order to both reduce the distance needed to
travel for water and to prevent overgrazing around water
sources;
(iii) Prevent contamination of water sources with animal
excrement in order to prevent the spread of diseases, in
particular zoonosis;
(iv) Encourage multiple use of water-supplies through promotion
of integrated agro-livestock-fishery systems;
(v) Encourage water spreading schemes for increasing water
retention of extensive grasslands to stimulate forage
production and prevent run-off;
(h) Inland fisheries:
(i) Develop the sustainable management of fisheries as part of
national water resources planning;
(ii) Study specific aspects of the hydrobiology and
environmental requirements of key inland fish species in
relation to varying water regimes;
(iii) Prevent or mitigate modification of aquatic environments by
other users or rehabilitate environments subjected to such
modification on behalf of the sustainable use and
conservation of biological diversity of living aquatic
resources;
(iv) Develop and disseminate environmentally sound water
resources development and management methodologies for the
intensification of fish yield from inland waters;
(v) Establish and maintain adequate systems for the collection
and interpretation of data on water quality and quantity
and channel morphology related to the state and management
of living aquatic resources, including fisheries;
(i) Aquaculture development:
(i) Develop environmentally sound aquaculture technologies that
are compatible with local, regional and national water
resources management plans and take into consideration
social factors;
(ii) Introduce appropriate aquaculture techniques and related
water development and management practices in countries not
yet experienced in aquaculture;
(iii) Assess environmental impacts of aquaculture with specific
reference to commercial