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GENERAL
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I)
12 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
Chapter 7
PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE HUMAN SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
7.1. In industrialized countries, the consumption patterns of cities
are severely stressing the global ecosystem, while settlements in the
developing world need more raw material, energy, and economic
development simply to overcome basic economic and social problems.
Human settlement conditions in many parts of the world, particularly
the developing countries, are deteriorating mainly as a result of the
low levels of investment in the sector attributable to the overall
resource constraints in these countries. In the low-income countries
for which recent data are available, an average of only 5.6 per cent of
central government expenditure went to housing, amenities, social
security and welfare. 1/ Expenditure by international support and
finance organizations is equally low. For example, only 1 per cent of
the United Nations system's total grant-financed expenditures in 1988
went to human settlements, 2/ while in 1991, loans from the World Bank
and the International Development Association (IDA) for urban
development and water supply and sewerage amounted to 5.5 and
5.4 per cent, respectively, of their total lending. 3/
7.2. On the other hand, available information indicates that technical
cooperation activities in the human settlement sector generate
considerable public and private sector investment. For example, every
dollar of UNDP technical cooperation expenditure on human settlements
in 1988 generated a follow-up investment of $122, the highest of all
UNDP sectors of assistance. 4/
7.3. This is the foundation of the "enabling approach" advocated for
the human settlement sector. External assistance will help to generate
the internal resources needed to improve the living and working
environments of all people by the year 2000 and beyond, including the
growing number of unemployed - the no-income group. At the same time
the environmental implications of urban development should be
recognized and addressed in an integrated fashion by all countries,
with high priority being given to the needs of the urban and rural
poor, the unemployed and the growing number of people without any
source of income.
Human settlement objective
7.4. The overall human settlement objective is to improve the social,
economic and environmental quality of human settlements and the living
and working environments of all people, in particular the urban and
rural poor. Such improvement should be based on technical cooperation
activities, partnerships among the public, private and community
sectors and participation in the decision-making process by community
groups and special interest groups such as women, indigenous people,
the elderly and the disabled. These approaches should form the core
principles of national settlement strategies. In developing these
strategies, countries will need to set priorities among
the eight programme areas in this chapter in accordance with their
national plans and objectives, taking fully into account their social
and cultural capabilities. Furthermore, countries should make
appropriate provision to monitor the impact of their strategies on
marginalized and disenfranchised groups, with particular reference to
the needs of women.
7.5. The programme areas included in this chapter are:
(a) Providing adequate shelter for all;
(b) Improving human settlement management;
(c) Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management;
(d) Promoting the integrated provision of environmental
infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and solid-waste
management;
(e) Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in human
settlements;
(f) Promoting human settlement planning and management in
disaster-prone areas;
(g) Promoting sustainable construction industry activities;
(h) Promoting human resource development and capacity-building
for human settlement development.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Providing adequate shelter for all
Basis for action
7.6. Access to safe and healthy shelter is essential to a person's
physical, psychological, social and economic well-being and should be
a fundamental part of national and international action. The right to
adequate housing as a basic human right is enshrined in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights. Despite this, it is estimated that at the
present time, at least 1 billion people do not have access to safe and
healthy shelter and that if appropriate action is not taken, this
number will increase dramatically by the end of the century and beyond.
7.7. A major global programme to address this problem is the Global
Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000, adopted by the General Assembly
in December 1988 (resolution 43/181, annex). Despite its widespread
endorsement, the Strategy needs a much greater level of political and
financial support to enable it to reach its goal of facilitating
adequate shelter for all by the end of the century and beyond.
Objective
7.8. The objective is to achieve adequate shelter for rapidly growing
populations and for the currently deprived urban and rural poor through
an enabling approach to shelter development and improvement that is
environmentally sound.
Activities
7.9. The following activities should be undertaken:
(a) As a first step towards the goal of providing adequate
shelter for all, all countries should take immediate measures to
provide shelter to their homeless poor, while the international
community and financial institutions should undertake actions to
support the efforts of the developing countries to provide shelter to
the poor;
(b) All countries should adopt and/or strengthen national shelter
strategies, with targets based, as appropriate, on the principles and
recommendations contained in the Global Strategy for Shelter to the
Year 2000. People should be protected by law against unfair eviction
from their homes or land;
(c) All countries should, as appropriate, support the shelter
efforts of the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the no-income
group by adopting and/or adapting existing codes and regulations, to
facilitate their access to land, finance and low-cost building
materials and by actively promoting the regularization and upgrading of
informal settlements and urban slums as an expedient measure and
pragmatic solution to the urban shelter deficit;
(d) All countries should, as appropriate, facilitate access of
urban and rural poor to shelter by adopting and utilizing housing and
finance schemes and new innovative mechanisms adapted to their
circumstances;
(e) All countries should support and develop environmentally
compatible shelter strategies at national, state/provincial and
municipal levels through partnerships among the private, public and
community sectors and with the support of community-based
organizations;
(f) All countries, especially developing ones, should, as
appropriate, formulate and implement programmes to reduce the impact of
the phenomenon of rural to urban drift by improving rural living
conditions;
(g) All countries, where appropriate, should develop and
implement resettlement programmes that address the specific problems of
displaced populations in their respective countries;
(h) All countries should, as appropriate, document and monitor
the implementation of their national shelter strategies by using, inter
alia, the monitoring guidelines adopted by the Commission on Human
Settlements and the
shelter performance indicators being produced jointly by the United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and the World Bank;
(i) Bilateral and multilateral cooperation should be strengthened
in order to support the implementation of the national shelter
strategies of developing countries;
(j) Global progress reports covering national action and the
support activities of international organizations and bilateral donors
should be produced and disseminated on a biennial basis, as requested
in the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.10. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $75 billion, including about $10 billion from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.11. The requirements under this heading are addressed in each of the
other programme areas included in the present chapter.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.12. Developed countries and funding agencies should provide specific
assistance to developing countries in adopting an enabling approach to
the provision of shelter for all, including the no-income group, and
covering research institutions and training activities for government
officials, professionals, communities and non-governmental
organizations and by strengthening local capacity for the development
of appropriate technologies.
B. Improving human settlement management
Basis for action
7.13. By the turn of the century, the majority of the world's
population will be living in cities. While urban settlements,
particularly in developing countries, are showing many of the symptoms
of the global environment and development crisis, they nevertheless
generate 60 per cent of gross national product and, if properly
managed, can develop the capacity to sustain their productivity,
improve the living conditions of their residents and manage natural
resources in a sustainable way.
7.14. Some metropolitan areas extend over the boundaries of several
political and/or administrative entities (counties and municipalities)
even though they conform to a continuous urban system. In many cases
this political heterogeneity hinders the implementation of
comprehensive environmental management programmes.
Objective
7.15. The objective is to ensure sustainable management of all urban
settlements, particularly in developing countries, in order to enhance
their ability to improve the living conditions of residents, especially
the marginalized and disenfranchised, thereby contributing to the
achievement of national economic development goals.
Activities
(a) Improving urban management
7.16. One existing framework for strengthening management is in the
United Nations Development Programme/World Bank/United Nations Centre
for Human Settlements (Habitat) Urban Management Programme (UMP), a
concerted global effort to assist developing countries in addressing
urban management issues. Its coverage should be extended to all
interested countries during the period 1993-2000. All countries
should, as appropriate and in accordance with national plans,
objectives and priorities and with the assistance of non-governmental
organizations and representatives of local authorities, undertake the
following activities at the national, state/provincial and local
levels, with the assistance of relevant programmes and support
agencies:
(a) Adopting and applying urban management guidelines in the
areas of land management, urban environmental management,
infrastructure management and municipal finance and administration;
(b) Accelerating efforts to reduce urban poverty through a number
of actions, including:
(i) Generating employment for the urban poor, particularly women,
through the provision, improvement and maintenance of urban
infrastructure and services and the support of economic
activities in the informal sector, such as repairs,
recycling, services and small commerce;
(ii) Providing specific assistance to the poorest of the urban
poor through, inter alia, the creation of social
infrastructure in order to reduce hunger and homelessness,
and the provision of adequate community services;
(iii) Encouraging the establishment of indigenous community-based
organizations, private voluntary organizations and other
forms of non-governmental entities that can contribute to the
efforts to reduce poverty and improve the quality of life for
low-income families;
(c) Adopting innovative city planning strategies to address
environmental and social issues by:
(i) Reducing subsidies on, and recovering the full costs of,
environmental and other services of high standard (e.g. water
supply, sanitation, waste collection, roads,
telecommunications) provided to higher income neighbourhoods;
(ii) Improving the level of infrastructure and service provision
in poorer urban areas;
(d) Developing local strategies for improving the quality of life
and the environment, integrating decisions on land use and land
management, investing in the public and private sectors and mobilizing
human and material resources, thereby promoting employment generation
that is environmentally sound and protective of human health.
(b) Strengthening urban data systems
7.17. During the period 1993-2000 all countries should undertake, with
the active participation of the business sector as appropriate, pilot
projects in selected cities for the collection, analysis and subsequent
dissemination of urban data, including environmental impact analysis,
at the local, state/provincial, national and international levels and
the establishment of city data management capabilities. 5/ United
Nations organizations, such as Habitat, UNEP and UNDP, could provide
technical advice and model data management systems.
(c) Encouraging intermediate city development
7.18. In order to relieve pressure on large urban agglomerations of
developing countries, policies and strategies should be implemented
towards the development of intermediate cities that create employment
opportunities for unemployed labour in the rural areas and support
rural-based economic activities, although sound urban management is
essential to ensure that urban sprawl does not expand resource
degradation over an ever wider land area and increase pressures to
convert open space and agricultural/buffer lands for development.
7.19. Therefore all countries should, as appropriate, conduct reviews
of urbanization processes and policies in order to assess the
environmental impacts of growth and apply urban planning and management
approaches specifically suited to the needs, resource capabilities and
characteristics of their growing intermediate-sized cities. As
appropriate, they should also
concentrate on activities aimed at facilitating the transition from
rural to urban lifestyles and settlement patterns and at promoting the
development of small-scale economic activities, particularly the
production of food, to support local income generation and the
production of intermediate goods and services for rural hinterlands.
7.20. All cities, particularly those characterized by severe
sustainable development problems, should, in accordance with national
laws, rules and regulations, develop and strengthen programmes aimed at
addressing such problems and guiding their development along a
sustainable path. Some international initiatives in support of such
efforts, as in the Sustainable Cities Programme of Habitat and the
Healthy Cities Programme of WHO, should be intensified. Additional
initiatives involving the World Bank, the regional development banks
and bilateral agencies, as well as other interested stakeholders,
particularly international and national representatives of local
authorities, should be strengthened and coordinated. Individual cities
should, as appropriate:
(a) Institutionalize a participatory approach to sustainable
urban development, based on a continuous dialogue between the actors
involved in urban development (the public sector, private sector and
communities), especially women and indigenous people;
(b) Improve the urban environment by promoting social
organization and environmental awareness through the participation of
local communities in the identification of public services needs, the
provision of urban infrastructure, the enhancement of public amenities
and the protection and/or rehabilitation of older buildings, historic
precincts and other cultural artifacts. In addition, "green works"
programmes should be activated to create self-sustaining human
development activities and both formal and informal employment
opportunities for low-income urban residents;
(c) Strengthen the capacities of their local governing bodies to
deal more effectively with the broad range of developmental and
environmental challenges associated with rapid and sound urban growth
through comprehensive approaches to planning that recognize the
individual needs of cities and are based on ecologically sound urban
design practices;
(d) Participate in international "sustainable city networks" to
exchange experiences and mobilize national and international technical
and financial support;
(e) Promote the formulation of environmentally sound and
culturally sensitive tourism programmes as a strategy for sustainable
development of urban and rural settlements and as a way of
decentralizing urban development and reducing discrepancies among
regions;
(f) Establish mechanisms, with the assistance of relevant
international agencies, to mobilize resources for local initiatives to
improve environmental quality;
(g) Empower community groups, non-governmental organizations and
individuals to assume the authority and responsibility for managing and
enhancing their immediate environment through participatory tools,
techniques and approaches embodied in the concept of environmental
care.
7.21. Cities of all countries should reinforce cooperation among
themselves and cities of the developed countries, under the aegis of
non-governmental organizations active in this field, such as the
International Union of Local Authorities (IULA), the International
Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) and the World
Federation of Twin Cities.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.22. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $100 billion, including about $15 billion from
the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.23. Developing countries should, with appropriate international
assistance, consider focusing on training and developing a cadre of
urban managers, technicians, administrators and other relevant
stakeholders who can successfully manage environmentally sound urban
development and growth and are equipped with the skills necessary to
analyse and adapt the innovative experiences of other cities. For this
purpose, the full range of training methods - from formal education to
the use of the mass media - should be utilized, as well as the
"learning by doing" option.
7.24. Developing countries should also encourage technological
training and research through joint efforts by donors, non-governmental
organizations and private business in such areas as the reduction of
waste, water quality, saving of energy, safe production of chemicals
and less polluting transportation.
7.25. Capacity-building activities carried out by all countries,
assisted as suggested above, should go beyond the training of
individuals and functional groups to include institutional
arrangements, administrative routines, inter-agency linkages,
information flows and consultative processes.
7.26. In addition, international efforts, such as the Urban Management
Programme, in cooperation with multilateral and bilateral agencies,
should continue to assist the developing countries in their efforts to
develop a participatory structure by mobilizing the human resources of
the private
sector, non-governmental organizations and the poor, particularly women
and the disadvantaged.
C. Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management
Basis for action
7.27. Access to land resources is an essential component of
sustainable low-impact lifestyles. Land resources are the basis for
(human) living systems and provide soil, energy, water and the
opportunity for all human activity. In rapidly growing urban areas,
access to land is rendered increasingly difficult by the conflicting
demands of industry, housing, commerce, agriculture, land tenure
structures and the need for open spaces. Furthermore, the rising costs
of urban land prevent the poor from gaining access to suitable land.
In rural areas, unsustainable practices, such as the exploitation of
marginal lands and the encroachment on forests and ecologically fragile
areas by commercial interests and landless rural populations, result in
environmental degradation, as well as in diminishing returns for
impoverished rural settlers.
Objective
7.28. The objective is to provide for the land requirements of human
settlement development through environmentally sound physical planning
and land use so as to ensure access to land to all households and,
where appropriate, the encouragement of communally and collectively
owned and managed land. 6/ Particular attention should be paid to the
needs of women and indigenous people for economic and cultural reasons.
Activities
7.29. All countries should consider, as appropriate, undertaking a
comprehensive national inventory of their land resources in order to
establish a land information system in which land resources will be
classified according to their most appropriate uses and environmentally
fragile or disaster-prone areas will be identified for special
protection measures.
7.30. Subsequently, all countries should consider developing national
land-resource management plans to guide land-resource development and
utilization and, to that end, should:
(a) Establish, as appropriate, national legislation to guide the
implementation of public policies for environmentally sound urban
development, land utilization, housing and for the improved management
of urban expansion;
(b) Create, where appropriate, efficient and accessible land
markets that meet community development needs by, inter alia, improving
land registry systems and streamlining procedures in land transactions;
(c) Develop fiscal incentives and land-use control measures,
including land-use planning solutions for a more rational and
environmentally sound use of limited land resources;
(d) Encourage partnerships among the public, private and
community sectors in managing land resources for human settlements
development;
(e) Strengthen community-based land-resource protection practices
in existing urban and rural settlements;
(f) Establish appropriate forms of land tenure that provide
security of tenure for all land-users, especially indigenous people,
women, local communities, the low-income urban dwellers and the rural
poor;
(g) Accelerate efforts to promote access to land by the urban and
rural poor, including credit schemes for the purchase of land and for
building/acquiring or improving safe and healthy shelter and
infrastructure services;
(h) Develop and support the implementation of improved
land-management practices that deal comprehensively with potentially
competing land requirements for agriculture, industry, transport, urban
development, green spaces, preserves and other vital needs;
(i) Promote understanding among policy makers of the adverse
consequences of unplanned settlements in environmentally vulnerable
areas and of the appropriate national and local land-use and
settlements policies required for this purpose.
7.31. At the international level, global coordination of land-resource
management activities should be strengthened by the various bilateral
and multilateral agencies and programmes, such as UNDP, FAO, the World
Bank, the regional development banks, other interested organizations
and the UNDP/World Bank/Habitat Urban Management Programme, and action
should be taken to promote the transfer of applicable experience on
sustainable land-management practices to and among developing
countries.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $3 billion, including about $300 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.33. All countries, particularly developing countries, alone or in
regional or subregional groupings, should be given access to modern
techniques of land-resource management, such as geographical
information systems, satellite photography/imagery and other
remote-sensing technologies.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.34. Environmentally focused training activities in sustainable
land-resources planning and management should be undertaken in all
countries, with developing countries being given assistance through
international support and funding agencies in order to:
(a) Strengthen the capacity of national, state/provincial and
local educational research and training institutions to provide formal
training of land-management technicians and professionals;
(b) Facilitate the organizational review of government ministries
and agencies responsible for land questions, in order to devise more
efficient mechanisms of land-resource management, and carry out
periodic in-service refresher courses for the managers and staff of
such ministries and agencies in order to familiarize them with
up-to-date land-resource-management technologies;
(c) Where appropriate, provide such agencies with modern
equipment, such as computer hardware and software and survey equipment;
(d) Strengthen existing programmes and promote an international
and interregional exchange of information and experience in land
management through the establishment of professional associations in
land-management sciences and related activities, such as workshops and
seminars.
D. Promoting the integrated provision of environmental
infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and
solid-waste management
Basis for action
7.35. The sustainability of urban development is defined by many
parameters relating to the availability of water supplies, air quality
and the provision of environmental infrastructure for sanitation and
waste management. As a result of the density of users, urbanization,
if properly managed, offers unique opportunities for the supply of
sustainable environmental infrastructure through adequate pricing
policies, educational programmes and equitable access mechanisms that
are economically and environmentally sound. In most developing
countries, however, the inadequacy and lack of environmental
infrastructure is responsible for widespread ill-health and a large
number of preventable deaths each year. In those countries conditions
are set to worsen due to growing needs that exceed the capacity of
Governments to respond adequately.
7.36. An integrated approach to the provision of environmentally sound
infrastructure in human settlements, in particular for the urban and
rural poor, is an investment in sustainable development that can
improve the quality of life, increase productivity, improve health and
reduce the burden of investments in curative medicine and poverty
alleviation.
7.37. Most of the activities whose management would be improved by an
integrated approach, are covered in Agenda 21 as follows: chapter 6
(Protecting and promoting human health conditions), chapters 9
(Protecting the atmosphere), 18 (Protecting the quality and supply of
freshwater resources) and 21 (Environmentally sound management of solid
wastes and sewage-related issues).
Objective
7.38. The objective is to ensure the provision of adequate
environmental infrastructure facilities in all settlements by the year
2025. The achievement of this objective would require that all
developing countries incorporate in their national strategies
programmes to build the necessary technical, financial and human
resource capacity aimed at ensuring better integration of
infrastructure and environmental planning by the year 2000.
Activities
7.39. All countries should assess the environmental suitability of
infrastructure in human settlements, develop national goals for
sustainable management of waste, and implement environmentally sound
technology to ensure that the environment, human health and quality of
life are protected. Settlement infrastructure and environmental
programmes designed to promote an integrated human settlements approach
to the planning, development, maintenance and management of
environmental infrastructure (water supply, sanitation, drainage,
solid-waste management) should be strengthened with the assistance of
bilateral and multilateral agencies. Coordination among these agencies
and with collaboration from international and national representatives
of local authorities, the private sector and community groups should
also be strengthened. The activities of all agencies engaged in
providing environmental infrastructure should, where possible, reflect
an ecosystem or metropolitan area approach to settlements and should
include monitoring, applied research, capacity-building, transfer of
appropriate technology and technical cooperation among the range of
programme activities.
7.40. Developing countries should be assisted at the national and
local levels in adopting an integrated approach to the provision of
water supply, energy, sanitation, drainage and solid-waste management,
and external funding agencies should ensure that this approach is
applied in particular to environmental infrastructure improvement in
informal settlements based on regulations and standards that take into
account the living conditions and resources of the communities to be
served.
7.41. All countries should, as appropriate, adopt the following
principles for the provision of environmental infrastructure:
(a) Adopt policies that minimize if not altogether avoid
environmental damage, whenever possible;
(b) Ensure that relevant decisions are preceded by environmental
impact assessments and also take into account the costs of any
ecological consequences;
(c) Promote development in accordance with indigenous practices
and adopt technologies appropriate to local conditions;
(d) Promote policies aimed at recovering the actual cost of
infrastructure services, while at the same time recognizing the need to
find suitable approaches (including subsidies) to extend basic services
to all households;
(e) Seek joint solutions to environmental problems that affect
several localities.
7.42. The dissemination of information from existing programmes should
be facilitated and encouraged among interested countries and local
institutions.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.43. The Conference secretariat has estimated most of the costs of
implementing the activities of this programme in other chapters. The
secretariat estimates the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of
technical assistance from the international community grant or
concessional terms to be about $50 million. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.44. Scientific and technological means within the existing
programmes should be coordinated wherever possible and should:
(a) Accelerate research in the area of integrated policies of
environmental infrastructure programmes and projects based on
cost/benefit analysis and overall environmental impact;
(b) Promote methods of assessing "effective demand", utilizing
environment and development data as criteria for selecting technology.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.45. With the assistance and support of funding agencies, all
countries should, as appropriate, undertake training and popular
participation programmes aimed at:
(a) Raising awareness of the means, approaches and benefits of
the provision of environmental infrastructure facilities, especially
among indigenous people, women, low-income groups and the poor;
(b) Developing a cadre of professionals with adequate skills in
integrated infrastructural service planning and maintenance of
resource-efficient, environmentally sound and socially acceptable
systems;
(c) Strengthening the institutional capacity of local authorities
and administrators in the integrated provision of adequate
infrastructure services in partnership with local communities and the
private sector;
(d) Adopting appropriate legal and regulatory instruments,
including cross-subsidy arrangements, to extend the benefits of
adequate and affordable environmental infrastructure to unserved
population groups, especially the poor.
E. Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in
human settlements
Basis for action
7.46. Most of the commercial and non-commercial energy produced today
is used in and for human settlements, and a substantial percentage of
it is used by the household sector. Developing countries are at
present faced with the need to increase their energy production to
accelerate development and raise the living standards of their
populations, while at the same time reducing energy production costs
and energy-related pollution. Increasing the efficiency of energy use
to reduce its polluting effects and to promote the use of renewable
energies must be a priority in any action taken to protect the urban
environment.
7.47. Developed countries, as the largest consumers of energy, are
faced with the need for energy planning and management, promoting
renewable and alternate sources of energy, and evaluating the
life-cycle costs of current systems and practices as a result of which
many metropolitan areas are suffering from pervasive air quality
problems related to ozone, particulate matters and carbon monoxide.
The causes have much to do with technological inadequacies and with an
increasing fuel consumption generated by inefficiencies, high
demographic and industrial concentrations and a rapid expansion in the
number of motor vehicles.
7.48. Transport accounts for about 30 per cent of commercial energy
consumption and for about 60 per cent of total global consumption of
liquid petroleum. In developing countries, rapid motorization and
insufficient investments in urban-transport planning, traffic
management and infrastructure, are creating increasing problems in
terms of accidents and injury, health, noise, congestion and loss of
productivity similar to those occurring in many developed countries.
All of these problems have a severe impact on urban populations,
particularly the low-income and no-income groups.
Objectives
7.49. The objectives are to extend the provision of more
energy-efficient technology and alternative/renewable energy for human
settlements and to reduce negative impacts of energy production and use
on human health and on the environment.
Activities
7.50. The principal activities relevant to this programme area are
included in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere), programme area B,
subprogramme 1 (Energy development, efficiency and consumption) and
subprogramme 2 (Transportation).
7.51. A comprehensive approach to human settlements development should
include the promotion of sustainable energy development in all
countries, as follows:
(a) Developing countries, in particular, should:
(i) Formulate national action programmes to promote and support
reafforestation and national forest regeneration with a view
to achieving sustained provision of the biomass energy needs
of the low-income groups in urban areas and the rural poor,
in particular women and children;
(ii) Formulate national action programmes to promote integrated
development of energy-saving and renewable energy
technologies, particularly for the use of solar, hydro, wind
and biomass sources;
(iii) Promote wide dissemination and commercialization of renewable
energy technologies through suitable measures, inter alia,
fiscal and technology transfer mechanisms;
(iv) Carry out information and training programmes directed at
manufacturers and users in order to promote energy-saving
techniques and energy-efficient appliances;
(b) International organizations and bilateral donors should:
(i) Support developing countries in implementing national energy
programmes in order to achieve widespread use of
energy-saving and renewable energy technologies, particularly
the use of solar, wind, biomass and hydro sources;
(ii) Provide access to research and development results to
increase energy-use efficiency levels in human settlements.
7.52. Promoting efficient and environmentally sound urban transport
systems in all countries should be a comprehensive approach to
urban-transport planning and management. To this end, all countries
should:
(a) Integrate land-use and transportation planning to encourage
development patterns that reduce transport demand;
(b) Adopt urban-transport programmes favouring high-occupancy
public transport in countries, as appropriate;
(c) Encourage non-motorized modes of transport by providing safe
cycleways and footways in urban and suburban centres in countries, as
appropriate;
(d) Devote particular attention to effective traffic management,
efficient operation of public transport and maintenance of transport
infrastructure;
(e) Promote the exchange of information among countries and
representatives of local and metropolitan areas;
(f) Re-evaluate the present consumption and production patterns
in order to reduce the use of energy and national resources.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.53. The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs of
implementing the activities of this programme in chapter 9 (Protection
of the atmosphere).
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.54. In order to enhance the skills of energy service and transport
professionals and institutions, all countries should, as appropriate:
(a) Provide on-the-job and other training of government
officials, planners, traffic engineers and managers involved in the
energy-service and transport section;
(b) Raise public awareness of the environmental impacts of
transport and travel behaviour through mass media campaigns and support
for non-governmental and community initiatives promoting the use of
non-motorized transport, shared driving and improved traffic safety
measures;
(c) Strengthen regional, national, state/provincial, and private
sector institutions that provide education and training on energy
service and urban transport planning and management.
F. Promoting human settlement planning and management in
disaster-prone areas
Basis for action
7.55. Natural disasters cause loss of life, disruption of economic
activities and urban productivity, particularly for highly susceptible
low-income groups, and environmental damage, such as loss of fertile
agricultural land and contamination of water resources, and can lead to
major resettlement of populations. Over the past two decades, they are
estimated to have caused some 3 million deaths and affected 800 million
people. Global economic losses have been estimated by the Office of
the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator to be in the range of
$30-50 billion per year.
7.56. The General Assembly, in resolution 44/236, proclaimed the 1990s
as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The goals
of the Decade 7/ bear relevance to the objectives of the present
programme area.
7.57. In addition, there is an urgent need to address the prevention
and reduction of man-made disasters and/or disasters caused by, inter
alia, industries, unsafe nuclear power generation and toxic wastes (see
chapter 6 of Agenda 21).
Objective
7.58. The objective is to enable all countries, in particular those
that are disaster-prone, to mitigate the negative impact of natural and
man-made disasters on human settlements, national economies and the
environment.
Activities
7.59. Three distinct areas of activity are foreseen under this
programme area, namely, the development of a "culture of safety",
pre-disaster planning and post-disaster reconstruction.
(a) Developing a culture of safety
7.60. To promote a "culture of safety" in all countries, especially
those that are disaster-prone, the following activities should be
carried out:
(a) Completing national and local studies on the nature and
occurrence of natural disasters, their impact on people and economic
activities, the effects of inadequate construction and land use in
hazard-prone areas, and the social and economic advantages of adequate
pre-disaster planning;
(b) Implementing nationwide and local awareness campaigns through
all available media, translating the above knowledge into information
easily comprehensible to the general public and to the populations
directly exposed to hazards;
(c) Strengthening, and/or developing global, regional, national
and local early warning systems to alert populations to impending
disasters;
(d) Identifying industrially based environmental disaster areas
at the national and international levels and implementing strategies
aimed at the rehabilitation of these areas through, inter alia:
(i) Restructuring of the economic activities and promoting new
job opportunities in environmentally sound sectors;
(ii) Promoting close collaboration between governmental and local
authorities, local communities and non-governmental
organizations and private business;
(iii) Developing and enforcing strict environmental control
standards.
(b) Developing pre-disaster planning
7.61. Pre-disaster planning should form an integral part of human
settlement planning in all countries. The following should be
included:
(a) Undertaking complete multi-hazard research into risk and
vulnerability of human settlements and settlement infrastructure,
including water and sewerage, communication and transportation
networks, as one type of risk reduction may increase vulnerability to
another (e.g., an earthquake-resistant house made of wood will be more
vulnerable to wind storms);
(b) Developing methodologies for determining risk and
vulnerability within specific human settlements and incorporating risk
and vulnerability reduction into the human settlement planning and
management process;
(c) Redirecting inappropriate new development and human
settlements to areas not prone to hazards;
(d) Preparing guidelines on location, design and operation of
potentially hazardous industries and activities;
(e) Developing tools (legal, economic etc.) to encourage
disaster-sensitive development, including means of ensuring that
limitations on development options are not punitive to owners, or
incorporate alternative means of compensation;
(f) Further developing and disseminating information on
disaster-resistant building materials and construction technologies for
buildings and public works in general;
(g) Developing training programmes for contractors and builders
on disaster-resistant construction methods. Some programmes should be
directed particularly to small enterprises, which build the great
majority of housing and other small buildings in the developing
countries, as well as to the rural populations, which build their own
houses;
(h) Developing training programmes for emergency site managers,
non-governmental organizations and community groups which cover all
aspects of disaster mitigation, including urban search and rescue,
emergency communications, early warning techniques, and pre-disaster
planning;
(i) Developing procedures and practices to enable local
communities to receive information about hazardous installations or
situations in these areas, and facilitate their participation in early
warning and disaster abatement and response procedures and plans;
(j) Preparing action plans for the reconstruction of settlements,
especially the reconstruction of community life-lines.
(c) Initiating post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation
planning
7.62. The international community, as a major partner in
post-reconstruction and rehabilitation, should ensure that the
countries involved derive the greatest benefits from the funds
allocated by undertaking the following activities:
(a) Carrying out research on past experiences on the social and
economic aspects of post-disaster reconstruction and adopting effective
strategies and guidelines for post-disaster reconstruction, with
particular focus on development-focused strategies in the allocation of
scarce reconstruction resources, and on the opportunities that
post-disaster reconstruction provides to introduce sustainable
settlement patterns;
(b) Preparing and disseminating international guidelines for
adaptation to national and local needs;
(c) Supporting efforts of national Governments to initiate
contingency planning, with participation of affected communities, for
post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.63. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $50 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.64. Scientists and engineers specializing in this field in both
developing and developed countries should collaborate with urban and
regional planners in order to provide the basic knowledge and means to
mitigate losses owing to disasters as well as environmentally
inappropriate development.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.65. Developing countries should conduct training programmes on
disaster-resistant construction methods for contractors and builders,
who build the majority of housing in the developing countries. This
should focus on the small business enterprises, which build the
majority of housing in the developing countries.
7.66. Training programmes should be extended to government officials
and planners and community and non-governmental organizations to cover
all aspects of disaster mitigation, such as early warning techniques,
pre-disaster planning and construction, post-disaster construction and
rehabilitation.
G. Promoting sustainable construction industry activities
Basis for action
7.67. The activities of the construction sector are vital to the
achievement of the national socio-economic development goals of
providing shelter, infrastructure and employment. However, they can be
a major source of environmental damage through depletion of the natural
resource base, degradation of fragile eco-zones, chemical pollution and
the use of building materials harmful to human health.
Objectives
7.68. The objectives are, first, to adopt policies and technologies
and to exchange information on them in order to enable the construction
sector to meet human settlement development goals, while avoiding
harmful side-effects
on human health and on the biosphere, and, second, to enhance the
employment-generation capacity of the construction sector. Governments
should work in close collaboration with the private sector in achieving
these objectives.
Activities
7.69. All countries should, as appropriate and in accordance with
national plans, objectives and priorities:
(a) Establish and strengthen indigenous building materials
industry, based, as much as possible, on inputs of locally available
natural resources;
(b) Formulate programmes to enhance the utilization of local
materials by the construction sector by expanding technical support and
incentive schemes for increasing the capabilities and economic
viability of small-scale and informal operatives which make use of
these materials and traditional construction techniques;
(c) Adopt standards and other regulatory measures which promote
the increased use of energy-efficient designs and technologies and
sustainable utilization of natural resources in an economically and
environmentally appropriate way;
(d) Formulate appropriate land-use policies and introduce
planning regulations specially aimed at the protection of eco-sensitive
zones against physical disruption by construction and
construction-related activities;
(e) Promote the use of labour-intensive construction and
maintenance technologies which generate employment in the construction
sector for the underemployed labour force found in most large cities,
while at the same time promoting the development of skills in the
construction sector;
(f) Develop policies and practices to reach the informal sector
and self-help housing builders by adopting measures to increase the
affordability of building materials on the part of the urban and rural
poor, through, inter alia, credit schemes and bulk procurement of
building materials for sale to small-scale builders and communities.
7.70. All countries should:
(a) Promote the free exchange of information on the entire range
of environmental and health aspects of construction, including the
development and dissemination of databases on the adverse environmental
effects of building materials through the collaborative efforts of the
private and public sectors;
(b) Promote the development and dissemination of databases on the
adverse environmental and health effects of building materials and
introduce legislation and financial incentives to promote recycling of
energy-intensive
materials in the construction industry and conservation of waste energy
in building-materials production methods;
(c) Promote the use of economic instruments, such as product
charges, to discourage the use of construction materials and products
that create pollution during their life cycle;
(d) Promote information exchange and appropriate technology
transfer among all countries, with particular attention to developing
countries, for resource management in construction, particularly for
non-renewable resources;
(e) Promote research in construction industries and related
activities, and establish and strengthen institutions in this sector.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.71. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $40 billion, including about $4 billion from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.72. Developing countries should be assisted by international support
and funding agencies in upgrading the technical and managerial
capacities of the small entrepreneur and the vocational skills of
operatives and supervisors in the building materials industry, using a
variety of training methods. These countries should also be assisted
in developing programmes to encourage the use of non-waste and clean
technologies through appropriate transfer of technology.
7.73. General education programmes should be developed in all
countries, as appropriate, to increase builder awareness of available
sustainable technologies.
7.74. Local authorities are called upon to play a pioneering role in
promoting the increased use of environmentally sound building materials
and construction technologies, e.g., by pursuing an innovative
procurement policy.
H. Promoting human resource development and capacity-building
for human settlements development
Basis for action
7.75. Most countries, in addition to shortcomings in the availability
of specialized expertise in the areas of housing, settlement
management, land management, infrastructure, construction, energy,
transport, and pre-disaster planning and reconstruction, face three
cross-sectoral human resource development and capacity-building
shortfalls. First is the absence of an enabling policy environment
capable of integrating the resources and activities of the public
sector, the private sector and the community, or social sector; second
is the weakness of specialized training and research institutions; and
third is the insufficient capacity for technical training and
assistance for low-income communities, both urban and rural.
Objective
7.76. The objective is to improve human resource development and
capacity-building in all countries by enhancing the personal and
institutional capacity of all actors, particularly indigenous people
and women, involved in human settlement development. In this regard,
account should be taken of traditional cultural practices of indigenous
people and their relationship to the environment.
Activities
7.77. Specific human resource development and capacity-building
activities have been built into each of the programme areas of this
chapter. More generally, however, additional steps should be taken to
reinforce those activities. In order to do so, all countries, as
appropriate, should take the following action:
(a) Strengthening the development of human resources and of
capacities of public sector institutions through technical assistance
and international cooperation so as to achieve by the year 2000
substantial improvement in the efficiency of governmental activities;
(b) Creating an enabling policy environment supportive of the
partnership between the public, private and community sectors;
(c) Providing enhanced training and technical assistance to
institutions providing training for technicians, professionals and
administrators, and appointed, elected and professional members of
local governments and strengthening their capacity to address priority
training needs, particularly in regard to social, economic and
environmental aspects of human settlements development;
(d) Providing direct assistance for human settlement development
at the community level, inter alia, by:
(i) Strengthening and promoting programmes for social
mobilization and raising awareness of the potential of women
and youth in human settlements activities;
(ii) Facilitating coordination of the activities of women, youth,
community groups and non-governmental organizations in human
settlements development;
(iii) Promoting research on women's programmes and other groups,
and evaluating progress made with a view to identifying
bottlenecks and needed assistance;
(e) Promoting the inclusion of integrated environmental
management into general local government activities.
7.78. Both international organizations and non-governmental
organizations should support the above activities by, inter alia,
strengthening subregional training institutions, providing updated
training materials and disseminating the results of successful human
resource and capacity-building activities, programmes and projects.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.79. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $65 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.80. Both formal training and non-formal types of human resource
development and capacity-building programmes should be combined, and
use should be made of user-oriented training methods, up-to-date
training materials and modern audio-visual communication systems.
Notes
1/ No aggregate figures are available on internal expenditure or
official development assistance on human settlements. However, data
available in the World Development Report, 1991, for 16 low-income
developing countries show that the percentage of central government
expenditure on housing, amenities and social security and welfare for
1989 averaged 5.6 per cent, with a high of 15.1 per cent in the case of
Sri Lanka, which has embarked on a
vigorous housing programme. In OECD industrialized countries, during
the same year, the percentage of central government expenditure on
housing, amenities and social security and welfare ranged from a
minimum of 29.3 per cent to a maximum of 49.4 per cent, with an average
of 39 per cent (World Bank, World Development Report, 1991, World
Development Indicators, table 11 (Washington, D.C., 1991)).
2/ See the report of the Director-General for Development and
International Economic Cooperation containing preliminary statistical
data on operational activities of the United Nations system for 1988
(A/44/324-E/1989/106/Add.4, annex).
3/ World Bank, Annual Report, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991).
4/ UNDP, "Reported investment commitments related to
UNDP-assisted projects, 1988", table 1, "Sectoral distribution of
investment commitment in 1988-1989".
5/ A pilot programme of this type, the City Data Programme
(CDP), is already in operation in the United Nations Centre on Human
Settlements (Habitat) aimed at the production and dissemination to
participating cities of microcomputer application software designed to
store, process and retrieve city data for local, national and
international exchange and dissemination.
6/ This calls for integrated land-resource management policies,
which are also addressed in chapter 10 of Agenda 21 (Integrated
approach to planning and management of land resources).
7/ The goals of the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction, set out in the annex to General Assembly resolution 44/236,
are as follows:
(a) To improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the
effects of natural disasters expeditiously and effectively, paying
special attention to assisting developing countries in the assessment
of disaster damage potential and in the establishment of early warning
systems and disaster-resistant structures when and where needed;
(b) To devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying
existing scientific and technical knowledge, taking into account the
cultural and economic diversity among nations;
(c) To foster scientific and engineering endeavours aimed at
closing critical gaps in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life and
property;
(d) To disseminate existing and new technical information related
to measures for the assessment, prediction and mitigation of natural
disasters;
(e) To develop measures for the assessment, prediction,
prevention and mitigation of natural disasters through programmes of
technical assistance and technology transfer, demonstration projects,
and education and training, tailored to specific disasters and
locations, and to evaluate the effectiveness of those programmes.
END OF CHAPTER 7
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